Writing a First Draft
General Organization of
an Argument|
General Organization of
the Course Project|
What to Include in the
Introduction|
Body Section I|
Acknowledge the
Opposing View|
Using American
Psychological Association (APA) Documentation Style
For the remainder of the course, we will focus on drafting and
refining your paper; that effort begins with the draft youll write
this week. By now youve conducted library and Internet research
for information to support your topic. Youve read a variety of
sources of research. Youve also written assignments over the past
few weeks that contain material that you can incorporate into the
draft. Now you will combine the components into the paragraphs and
pages of your project. This week, youll plan your Course Project
and write the first two sections.
How do you get there? Its not as difficult as you might
think.
General Organization of an Argument
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If youve ever watched a courtroom scene, youre familiar with
the basic organization that is used to persuade an audience using
an argument. One side introduces an issue, usually with background
information. The opposing argument is stated and then taken apart
point by point to create reasonable doubt. The audience is then
presented with the main argument. The main argument is presented
logically so that the audience can easily follow. This means that
one section is presented at a time, each one supported by
reasonable evidence from experts, witnesses, or personal testimony.
The argument ends with a conclusion asserting the final persuasive
points that are left to the audience to make a conclusion
about.
Similarly the Course Project will have a recognizable
structure.
General Organization of the Course Project
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The Course Project consists of the following sections.
- Introduction
- Attention-getting hook
- Topic, purpose, and thesis
- Background
- Relevance to reader
- Body
Logically presented, point-by-point argument with evidence
(the number of sections may differ by paper, but you should
plan to have at least two sections)
- Section 1 (25 paragraphs)
- Section 2 (25 paragraphs)
- Section 3 (25 paragraphs)
- Section 4 (25 paragraphs)
- Section 5 (25 paragraphs)
- Conclusion
Each section has a distinct focus.
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Introduction and Background
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Engages the audience; identifies the topic, purpose, and thesis,
and previews for the reader how the papers will be
organized.
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Body
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Divides into sections that logically present the point-by-point
argument with evidence; developed with two to five major sections
with two to five paragraphs each.
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Conclusion
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Summarizes without repeating information and includes a call for
action that outlines how the reader might think or act
differently.
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The first draft, due this week, will provide the introduction
and one section of the body of the paper.
What to Include in the Introduction
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The introduction contains the following elements.
- Attention-getting hook
- Topic, purpose, and thesis
- Background
- Relevance to reader
Use an attention grabber, also known as a hook, to gain the
attention of your reader. Youve written paragraphs of introduction
in prior assignments for this course. Take a look at one and see if
you can strengthen the way it starts. A good hook will present an
idea that effectively draws your reader into wanting to know more
about your topic. For examples, pay close attention to how your
sources use hooks for their articles. Otherwise, any of the below
are examples of attention-getting openers.
Pose a
thought-provoking question.
Present a short anecdote.
Cite a surprising statistic.
Assert a challenging statement.
Use a quotation.
Incorporate dialogue.
Here is a sample hook:
Brittany, an honors student in Atlanta, Georgia, had worked hard
her entire academic career to celebrate what would be her proudest
moment in high school: commencement. She wanted to walk across the
stage to the flash of cameras and smiles of her family just like
her classmates, and then journey off to a college in South Carolina
where she had already been accepted. So she gathered her proud
family members from Chicago and Washington, D.C., to come to share
in her joy. Brittany watched as her classmates put on their caps
and gowns and walked across the stage to receive their diplomas.
But she did not, and waited all during the day to get a last-minute
waiver signed. She continued to wait through the night, but it
never came. She began to realize that if she graduated, it would
not be quick or easy.
Once youve drawn your reader in, continue developing the
introductory section with background that the reader will need to
place your ideas into a context by presenting the topic, purpose,
and thesis; a background; and a justification of the relevance of
the topic to the reader. The background section details how the
topic became an issue of discussion or concern. It may include a
summary of the opposing view, or the history, causes, and effects
that support the argument you are making.
Here is an example:
The purpose of this argument on replacing standardized tests
with end-of-year subject tests is to convince readers that changing
assessments in education will improve education, and a strong
educational system will result in several positive outcomes. The
problems and their outcomes as well as the solution are the result
of thorough research on these tests. Though I am a novice scholar,
I will include several sources that will establish my credibility
regarding standardized tests. The ideas of Hillocks (2002), McNeil
and Valenzuela (2001), and Ravitch (2011), who are all experts on
this topic, will help to establish my credibility.
Everyone is affected by the strength of our educational
system, from the students themselves and their ability to succeed
in college and in the workplace to the employers who hire themand
everyone in between. Every taxpayer is a stakeholder in education,
because these tests are paid for by tax dollars, and the return on
investment in education is not where it should be. Standardized
tests should be abolished and replaced with end-of-year subject
tests because they will save time and money, lead to increased
mastery of core subjects, and diminish dropout rates.
Body Section I
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The assignments over the past few weeks have given you a start
on the introduction, but at the draft phase, you will need to
develop the body of your project, the main ideas that support your
thesis, using your gathered sources. Remember, youve done some of
this information processing and summarizing in prior assignments,
such as your Annotated Bibliography. Review statements that youve
written and determine whether additional support is needed to
support your claim. For example, the idea below is too general,
vague, and unsupported. It cannot stand on its own because it may
reflect the personal judgment of the author but is not persuasive
until it is supported.
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This problem resulted from national concern with global
competition and poorly designed tests that dont measure what they
should.
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To support the example above, the writer would review marked or
highlighted passages to find evidence for the idea that
standardized tests are a problem. Ravitchs 2011 article on this
topic fills in the support. Here is the word-for-word text from the
source. Direct quotation is used sparingly, and only when the
sources original wording states the information in such a
memorable way that it could not be paraphrased better.
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"Once this regime is well established, we can expect more
attention to basic skills and less time for history, science, the
arts, geography, civics, foreign language, even physical education.
We can expect to see students who master test-taking skills without
necessarily becoming better at reading and mathematics. After eight
years of NCLB, remediation rates in college have not declined. Some
districts and states are producing higher test scores but no better
education because students are learning to pass tests but not to
comprehend complex materialthat requires background knowledgenor
have they mastered the mathematics required for entry-level courses
in college.
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The step to incorporate the passage above into the section
involves adding this information into the paragraph.
The paragraph below demonstrates how source material is
transformed without introducing additional opinion or distorting
the stated idea. The writer is faithful to Ravitchs wording,
substituting synonyms and changing the sentence structure.
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Standardized tests will continue to decrease the class time
spent on history and science and increase the number of skilled
test-takers who arent any better at math and reading, despite No
Child Left Behind legislation and its promise of improvement
through standardized tests. If these tests improved complex skills
in math and reading, students would not have to take remediation
courses in college at the same rates, but this is not the case:
improved scores on standardized tests does not translate into the
kind of proficiency needed even for first year college
courses.
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Theres one more step: in-text citations.
The idea must be cited because it comes from a source other than
the student and because it is not common knowledge. Even when you
summarize or paraphrase, you are still borrowing someones idea, so
you must give credit for his or her idea. In-text citations are
added for these two sentences.
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Standardized tests will continue to decrease the class time
spent on history and science and increase the number of skilled
test-takers who arent any better at math and reading, despite No
Child Left Behind legislation and its promise of improvement
through standardized tests (Ravitch, 2011). If these tests improved
complex skills in math and reading, students would not have to take
remediation courses in college at the same rates, but this is not
the case, according to Ravitch (2011): improved scores on
standardized tests do not translate into the kind of proficiency
needed even for first year college courses.
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Add qualification for any claim you make by using a source to
support general or vague statements.
Remember what you learned in the APA module regarding quoting.
When you quote, you are using a sources exact words to help
support your argument.
You will summarize and paraphrase source material for your
research essay much more often than you will use direct quotes.
Paraphrasing your sources, while being certain also to cite
properly both in the text and the References page, signals to your
reader that you have good understanding of your sources argument
and have synthesized the authors argument for support of your
argument.
If youre unsure, access the presentation again in Doc Sharing
and look through the four criteria for quotations to determine
whether or not your idea adheres to one of them. If it does, quote;
if it does not, summarize or paraphrase.
Acknowledge the Opposing View
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Toward
the start of your paper, in the first body section, you can also
apply the strategy of acknowledging the opposing viewpoint. This
example shows the opposing view by explaining how the current issue
of national standardized tests originates from a reasonable
claim.
Recognizing the opposing view shows a reader that youre
informed on viewpoints other than the one you believe to be the
strongest. In college and in your career, you are seldom
contemplating issues that only have one right answer. Good
communicators can acknowledge that there is more than one way to
look at an issue. Further, these communicators can even concede a
point to someone with whom they disagree. In the process of
acknowledging the opposing view, a writer or speaker can convey a
sense of fairness to an audience. A fair-minded writer is more
likely to have an influence on the audience because he or she
cannot be dismissed as overly biased.
On the sample topic on standardized tests and the No Child Left
Behind/Race to the Top educational initiatives, the writer can
represent the opposition, as shown here in green:
It is true that accountability measures in schools are
essential. School boards, administrators, parents, teachers, and
children should bear equal responsibility for improving the
learning outcomes of students. The question is whether the
accountability measures should be federally dictated and
controlled, or locally controlled through end-of-year subject
tests.
The sentence that begins It is true concedes the purpose of
the standardized testing initiatives. The sentence also anticipates
questions that a reader would have. The first half of the paragraph
objectively presents the issue. The writer could continue to
acknowledge a few more of the points that both sides might
share.
The draft can also connect the opposing view with the next
section, which is the point-by-point presentation of the main
argument.
It is true that accountability measures in schools are
essential. School boards, administrators, parents, teachers, and
children should bear equal responsibility for improving the
learning outcomes of students. The question is whether the
accountability measures should be federally dictated and
controlled, or locally controlled through end-of-year subject
tests.
Instead, standardized tests should be abolished and replaced
with end-of-year subject tests because they will save time and
money, lead to increased mastery of core subjects, and diminish
dropout rates. End-of-year subject tests will be successful in
raising the standards and expectations of our students while
decentralizing control of students learning away from the
government and politicians to teachers who know their students
best.
Writing that incorporates research isnt so much about filling a
page with words, but about carefully backing up the statements you
make in order to build a strong argument.
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Research Tip
Do an Internet search to test the quality of your
paraphrase or summary.
Open up an Internet browser and paste your paraphrased or
summarized sentence into the search box.
Enclose the idea in beginning and ending quotation marks like
the following example: When Irish eyes are smiling, they will
steal your heart away, followed by your wallet.
Then click on the
searchkey.
You should have zero results, meaning that your summary or
paraphrase has been done correctly, because you have arrived at
your uniquely worded idea.
If you get even one result, then change the wording or the
sentence structure and try again with the sentence enclosed in
quotation marks. Continue this procedure until you get zero
results. When you get zero results, you know that your sentence has
been paraphrased or summarized correctlyat least the same words
written in the same order do not exist on the Internet.
Note that the probability of having the same exact 16 words in
the same order as someone else, excluding
a,
an,
the, and
of, is almost 1 in 1 trillion (as cited in Phelps,
2010).
If your sentence gets results, it cannot be merely coincidental
that it matches up with someone elses idea.
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Using American Psychological Association (APA) Documentation
Style
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APA in-text and reference citations are required for this
assignment. See Chapter 28, pp. 532542 for samples of APA style
for in-text parenthetical references and the reference list. This
week, you should be able to demonstrate proficiency with use of
in-text citation by arranging citation components into correct APA
format on your annotated bibliography.
